No driving automation
Human drives; warnings and momentary help only (e.g. automatic emergency braking).
You driveSelf-driving cars
Where cars may drive themselves, who actually runs driverless services, how much of the driving that is, and how the crash record compares with human drivers. Official numbers come from NHTSA, Waymo's safety hub, FHWA and the World Bank; dated facts link to their source.
Waymo rider-only miles 271.3M cumulative to 1 Jun 2026
Waymo paid rides a week 500k as of 27 Mar 2026
Apollo Go rides (cumulative) 23m as of 30 Jun 2026
Driverless share of US miles unknown estimate, method below
Injury crashes vs humans −82% Waymo, all locations
ADS crash reports, 12 months 1,298 NHTSA SGO (not a rate)
Levels of driving automation (SAE J3016)
Driver assistance
Human drives; the car steers OR controls speed (adaptive cruise or lane centring).
- Adaptive cruise control
Partial automation
Car steers AND controls speed; the human must supervise at all times and is the driver.
- Tesla Autopilot / FSD (Supervised)
- GM Super Cruise
- BYD God’s Eye
Conditional automation
Car drives in its domain (e.g. motorway traffic jams); the human may look away but must take over when asked.
- Mercedes-Benz DRIVE PILOT (UN R157)
- Changan and Arcfox L3 pilots, China (MIIT approval 15 Dec 2025)
High automation
Car drives itself with nobody needing to take over, but only inside its operational design domain (area, roads, weather).
- Waymo
- Baidu Apollo Go
- Zoox
- Pony.ai, WeRide
Full automation
Drives everywhere a human could, in all conditions. No L5 system exists.
Car drivesLevels from SAE J3016 (2021). L2 "hands-off" systems are still L2: the person is the driver.
Regulation by jurisdiction
United States (federal)
Framework- Levels
- No federal limit on SAE level; vehicles must meet FMVSS or hold an exemption
- Driverless
- Yes
- Testing
- Federal law does not license testing; states do. Crashes must be reported under NHTSA’s Standing General Order.
- Commercial
- Part 555 exemptions allow up to 2,500 non-compliant vehicles per year; Zoox was granted the first ADS passenger-vehicle exemption (31 Jul 2026 to 31 Jul 2028). FMVSS updates for vehicles without manual controls are being proposed (FMVSS 102/103/104, 110, 135, 108 in 2026).
- Liability
- Not set federally; state tort and product-liability law apply.
California
Commercial driverless- Levels
- L3–L4 permitted under permits
- Driverless
- Yes
- Testing
- DMV permits: testing with a safety driver, driverless testing, deployment. Manufacturers file collision reports and, for testing, annual disengagement reports.
- Commercial
- Paid driverless rides need DMV deployment plus a CPUC passenger-service permit (Waymo operates paid driverless service in the SF Bay Area and Los Angeles).
- Liability
- No AV-specific liability statute; general tort and product-liability law apply.
Arizona
Commercial driverless- Levels
- Fully autonomous vehicles allowed without a human driver
- Driverless
- Yes
- Testing
- No permit needed beyond the statute’s conditions (compliant vehicle, minimal-risk condition, law-enforcement interaction plan).
- Commercial
- Allowed; Waymo runs paid driverless rides in metro Phoenix (Maricopa County).
- Liability
- Unknown (no AV-specific allocation in the statute summary used here).
Texas
Commercial driverless- Levels
- Driverless operation allowed
- Driverless
- Yes
- Testing
- Driverless operation has been allowed since 2017 (SB 2205).
- Commercial
- Since SB 2807 (2025), commercial driverless operation needs an active TxDMV authorization; enforcement began 28 May 2026. Waymo (Austin) and Tesla (Austin, Dallas, Houston) operate.
- Liability
- Unknown
Nevada
Commercial driverless- Levels
- Fully autonomous vehicles allowed
- Driverless
- Yes
- Testing
- DMV testing licence and certificate of compliance (first state to legislate, 2011).
- Commercial
- Allowed; Zoox runs public driverless rides in Las Vegas.
- Liability
- Unknown
Florida
Commercial driverless- Levels
- Fully autonomous vehicles may operate without a human operator
- Driverless
- Yes
- Testing
- No state permit required; the ADS is deemed the operator.
- Commercial
- Allowed; Tesla runs driverless rides in Miami, Orlando and Tampa (late Oct 2026).
- Liability
- Unknown
European Union
Framework- Levels
- L3 (UN R157 ALKS, up to 130 km/h) and L4 type-approval for fully automated vehicles
- Driverless
- Limited
- Testing
- Member states authorise testing nationally.
- Commercial
- EU type-approval for the ADS of fully automated vehicles (2022/1426, amended by 2026/481) in defined use cases such as shuttles and hub-to-hub. Operating rules stay national.
- Liability
- National law; the revised Product Liability Directive (EU) 2024/2853 covers software.
Germany
Pilots- Levels
- L3 (UN R157) and L4 in approved operating areas
- Driverless
- Limited
- Testing
- KBA grants L4 test approvals (e.g. KIRA shuttles Darmstadt/Offenbach, June 2024).
- Commercial
- L4 operation needs a KBA vehicle approval, a state-approved operating area and a technical supervisor. MOIA began a Hamburg passenger test with ID. Buzz AD in July 2026.
- Liability
- Keeper’s strict liability under the StVG, with raised caps for autonomous vehicles; keeper must hold liability insurance.
United Kingdom
Pilots- Levels
- Self-driving vehicles authorised under the AV Act; no driverless service yet
- Driverless
- Limited
- Testing
- Testing under the Code of Practice with a safety driver. Wayve/Uber hold London private-hire licences for supervised rides.
- Commercial
- An automated passenger services (APS) pilot permit route came into force on 15 May 2026; full AV Act implementation is planned for the second half of 2027.
- Liability
- The authorised self-driving entity is responsible for driving; the user-in-charge is immune; insurer-first liability (AEV Act 2018).
Japan
Pilots- Levels
- L3 (since 2020) and L4 “specified automated operation” (since 1 Apr 2023)
- Driverless
- Limited
- Testing
- Road tests under police guidelines.
- Commercial
- L4 needs permission from the prefectural public safety commission. The first permit went to Eiheiji (Fukui) in May 2023. Waymo, GO and Nihon Kotsu target driverless taxis in Tokyo in 2027.
- Liability
- Unknown
China (national)
Pilots- Levels
- L3/L4 through the MIIT access pilot (Nov 2023); first L3 products approved Dec 2025
- Driverless
- Limited
- Testing
- City-level testing licences.
- Commercial
- The first L3 product approvals (Changan in Chongqing up to 50 km/h; Arcfox on Beijing expressways up to 80 km/h) are route-limited. Robotaxis run under city rules.
- Liability
- Set city by city (see Beijing, Shenzhen).
Beijing
Commercial driverless- Levels
- L3 and above
- Driverless
- Yes
- Testing
- Testing licences, then a road-application pilot after a safety assessment.
- Commercial
- Supports robotaxis and, for the first time, autonomous vehicles for personal passenger use (in designated areas).
- Liability
- Unknown
Shenzhen
Commercial driverless- Levels
- L3 (with driver), L4/L5 driverless in designated areas
- Driverless
- Yes
- Testing
- Testing and demonstration permits.
- Commercial
- Allowed in designated areas.
- Liability
- With a driver, the driver is liable. Fully driverless, the owner or manager is liable and may claim from the manufacturer for defects.
Wuhan
Commercial driverless- Levels
- L4
- Driverless
- Yes
- Testing
- Unknown
- Commercial
- Apollo Go runs its largest fleet here (more than 500 driverless vehicles as of April 2026). A system malfunction in April 2026 stalled robotaxis on the road.
- Liability
- Unknown
South Korea
Pilots- Levels
- L3; L4 through government performance certification
- Driverless
- Limited
- Testing
- Pilot zones (since the Act took effect in May 2020).
- Commercial
- L4 vehicles can be certified and run by eligible transport operators. Seoul’s first L4 robotaxi (RideFlux, Sangam) is planned for late November 2026, initially with a safety attendant.
- Liability
- Unknown
Netherlands
Testing- Levels
- Tests with or without a driver on board; no commercial driverless service
- Driverless
- Limited
- Testing
- RDW exemption for automated functions with a (possibly remote) safety driver: incidental up to 3 months, long-term up to 1 year. Since 2019 the Experimenteerwet allows permits for tests without a driver on board.
- Commercial
- No national framework beyond EU type-approval (2022/1426).
- Liability
- General Dutch liability law; motor insurance (WAM) applies.
Regulation and policy updates
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Proposed Rule: Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards; Modernization of FMVSS No. 108 To Accommodate ADS-Equipped Vehicles federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: Agency Information Collection Activities; Notice and Request for Comment; 49 CFR Part 555, Temporary Exemption From Motor Vehicle Safety and Bumper Standards federalregister.gov
- EUR-Lex 🇪🇺 UN Regulation No. 182 - Uniform provisions concerning the approval of a vehicle type with regard to a Driver Drowsiness and Attention Warning (DDAW) system [2026/2519] eur-lex.europa.eu
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Proposed Rule: Unleashing the Power of Unlicensed Ultra-Wideband Devices; Petition of Robert Bosch LLC for Amendment of the Part 15 Subpart F Ultra-Wideband Rules; and Petition of Alliance for Automative Innovation et al. To Amend Part 15 of the FCC's Rules To Permit the Operation of Certain Ultra-Wideband Devices federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Proposed Rule: Outbound Investment Security Program Regulations federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Proposed Rule: Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards; Modernization of FMVSS No. 108 To Accommodate ADS-Equipped Vehicles federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: Proposed Agency Information Collection Activities; Comment Request federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: Parts and Accessories Necessary for Safe Operation; Application for Exemption From Aurora Operations, Inc (USDOT #341156) federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: NHTSA Safety Research Portfolio Public Meeting: Fall 2026, and Automated Driving Systems Workshop federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: Agency Information Collection Activities; Submission to the Office of Management and Budget for Review and Approval; Request for Comment; Assessment of Contextual Driver Monitoring Systems (DMS) federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Rule: The Safer Affordable Fuel-Efficient (SAFE) Vehicles Rule III for Model Years 2022 to 2031 Passenger Cars and Light Trucks federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: Recalls Next: Technological Innovations and Safety Recalls federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Proposed Rule: Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards; Denial of a Petition for Rulemaking federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: Request for Information on Electromagnetic Fields (EMFs), Radiofrequency (RF) Radiation, and Wireless Radiation Exposure federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: Hazardous Materials: Information Collection Activities federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: AV Framework Updates and Request for Comments on Interim Guidance; Extension of Comment Period federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: Supplemental Notice of Partial Buy America Waiver for Minibuses federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: Notice of Intent To Prepare an Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed Issuance of an Exploration License to The Metals Company USA, LLC for “USA-B” (EISX-006-48-2CM-1779948024) federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: Introduction to the Unified Agenda of Federal Regulatory and Deregulatory Actions-2026 federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: Robomart, Inc.-Receipt of Application for Temporary Exemption From Various Requirements of the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards for an Automated Driving System-Equipped Vehicle federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: AV Framework Updates and Request for Comments on Interim Guidance federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: Updating and Expanding Guidance on Safe Development and Deployment of Automated Driving Systems federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Notice: Zoox-Grant of Temporary Exemption From Portions of Various Requirements of the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards for an Automated Driving System-Equipped Vehicle federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Proposed Rule: Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards; Modernization of FMVSS No. 135 To Accommodate ADS-Equipped Vehicles; Extension of Comment Period federalregister.gov
- Federal Register 🇺🇸 Rule: Establishing a Fixed Time Period of Admission and an Extension of Stay Procedure for Nonimmigrant Academic Students, Exchange Visitors, and Representatives of Foreign Information Media federalregister.gov
Official: US Federal Register documents mentioning automated driving systems (hourly) and EUR-Lex acts (every 6 h). News: GDELT headlines on self-driving, refreshed every 15 minutes. UNECE, state legislatures and the Chinese ministries have no keyless feed; their status above is curated.
Who drives where
| Operator | Status | Cities | Paid rides / week | Fleet | Driverless miles | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 🇺🇸 Waymo | commercial driverless | Phoenix, San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles, Austin, Atlanta, + other US cities (10 in total) | 500k | unknown | 271.3m | techcrunch.com · 27 Mar 2026 |
| About 500,000 paid rides a week across 10 US cities (March 2026), up from 50,000 in May 2024. Target: 1M a week by the end of 2026 (Bloomberg). Rider-only miles come from the Waymo safety hub. | ||||||
| 🇺🇸 Tesla Robotaxi | driverless in some cities | Austin, Dallas, Houston, Miami, Orlando, Tampa, SF Bay Area (safety driver) | unknown | unknown | 3.1m | robotaxistats.com · 30 Oct 2026 |
| 3.11M driverless miles since 22 Jan 2026, including 438k in Austin in the week to 18 Oct (Electrek, 27 Oct 2026). Some Austin cars still carry monitors. | ||||||
| 🇺🇸 Zoox | commercial driverless (Las Vegas) | Las Vegas, San Francisco (waitlist), Austin, Miami (employees) | unknown | unknown | unknown | robotaxiatlas.com · 30 Oct 2026 |
| Purpose-built vehicle without manual controls. NHTSA exemption allows up to 2,500 vehicles a year, 31 Jul 2026 to 31 Jul 2028. | ||||||
| 🇨🇳 Baidu Apollo Go | commercial driverless | Wuhan, Beijing, Shenzhen, Dubai, + others | unknown | unknown | unknown | fool.com · 30 Jun 2026 |
| More than 23M cumulative public rides by June 2026. Q1 2026: 3.2M fully driverless rides, with a weekly peak above 350k in March (Baidu). Q2 2026: about 1M rides while some cities paused for regulatory reasons; resuming from August. One airbag deployment per 14.4M km. | ||||||
| 🇨🇳 Pony.ai | commercial driverless | Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Beijing, Shanghai, + international pilots | unknown | 1,975 | unknown | ir.pony.ai · 18 Aug 2026 |
| 1,975 robotaxis worldwide (Q2 2026), with a target of more than 3,500 by year-end. Robotaxi revenue up 691% year on year. | ||||||
| 🇨🇳 WeRide | commercial driverless | Guangzhou, Abu Dhabi, + others | unknown | 1,800 | unknown | pub.lbkrs.com · 31 Jul 2026 |
| More than 1,800 robotaxis as of 31 Jul 2026, within a global L4 fleet of about 3,400 (all vehicle types). | ||||||
Waymo rider-only miles
cumulative, millions · per quarterly safety-hub releaseRider-only = no human driver on board. Each release restates miles since Sep 2020.
Waymo rider-only miles by area
millions, to 1 Jun 2026How much US driving is driverless? estimate
Unknown: needs at least two Waymo releases and 12 months of FHWA VMT.
Waymo safety hub · FHWA via FRED · Tesla (see table)Driver assistance (L2) in new cars
62.6% China, Jan–Jul 2025
Share of new passenger cars sold with L2 combined steering and speed assistance.
cn.chinadaily.com.cnUnited States and EU: unknown. The figures exist only in paid market reports (S&P Global Mobility, JATO), so they are not shown. L3 is still a niche (Mercedes DRIVE PILOT, first Chinese L3 approvals in Dec 2025).
Safety: driverless vs human drivers
Crash rates: Waymo vs human benchmark
incidents per million miles, all locations, release 1 Jun 2026Benchmark: human drivers on the same roads (Waymo's 2022 benchmark, mileage-blended across its areas). Rates for rare outcomes (serious injury) rest on few crashes.
Reduction vs humans, with 95% interval
| Outcome | Waymo crashes | Fewer | 95% CI |
|---|---|---|---|
| Any-injury reported | 183 | 82% | 79–85% |
| Suspected Serious Injury+ | 3 | 95% | 83–99% |
| Any Airbag Deployment | 80 | 82% | 77–86% |
| Ego Vehicle Airbag Deployment | 13 | 95% | 92–98% |
| Police reported | 392 | 74% | 71–77% |
Insurer view (Swiss Re, 19 Dec 2024): 88% fewer property-damage and 92% fewer bodily-injury claims than human drivers over the same miles (86% and 90% vs newer human-driven cars). waymo.com
Crash reports to NHTSA per month
Standing General Order: ADS (driverless-capable) and L2 ADASReports, not rates: they are not divided by miles, one crash can have several reports, and ADAS reporting depends on the car's telematics. Includes minor and no-injury crashes.
ADS crash reports by company
NHTSA SGO, all monthsMore reports mostly mean more miles driven, not a worse record.
Injury severity in crash reports
share of incidents, NHTSA SGOADAS reports are mostly 'unknown' severity: L2 telematics rarely report injuries.
The human baseline: road deaths
per 100,000 people, 2019 or latestUS 2025 early estimate (NHTSA): 36,640 deaths, 1.10 per 100M vehicle miles (2024: 39,254, 1.19).
US vehicle miles travelled
millions of miles per month (FHWA)The denominator for the driverless-share estimate.
Caveats: Waymo drives only where and when it is approved (cities, mostly no motorways, little snow), so the human benchmark is matched to those roads but not to every condition. Waymo's figures come from Waymo, using NHTSA SGO crashes; independent peer review (Swiss Re, Kusano et al.) points the same way. Tesla, Zoox and Chinese operators publish no comparable rates. CA DMV collision reports are PDFs without a machine-readable index, so they are not counted.